Abstract
This article focuses on teacher motivation as an intertwining of social capital, teacher goals and applicable motivational theories. A qualitative investigation was undertaken based on individual interviews with 12 teachers from four public primary schools in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo and North-West. The schools were selected according to the criterion of good academic performance. This criterion was motivated by the fact that learners’ own ability and the influence of parents as primary educators of their children are complemented by dedicated teachers as a contributing factor to good academic performance.
Teachers identified the main factors for teacher motivation as those related to a vocational calling, financial compensation, work performance, job security, the physical work environment and working relationships with stakeholders. These factors were jointly interpreted through the theoretical lens of social capital as developed by Bourdieu and Putnam, teacher goals as described by Butler and Deemer, and the motivational theories of Maslow, McGregor, Herzberg, Thomas and Velthouse, and Vroom. It became clear that teacher motivation is concurrently directed by a satisfying of needs and a vocational calling that manifests as an interweaving of habitus with mastery and relationship goals in order to arrange for group-related cooperation that engenders group-related benefits.
The acquiring of social capital takes place through the interactive functioning between the individual and society. Societal functioning, in turn, is realised through activity in multiple social spaces (Bourdieu 1984). Within each social space, such as education, social relationships are focused on constructive interaction between the individuals working in that space to ensure mutually acceptable performance. This performance is motivated by specific actions to serve as guidelines for successful outcomes. Bourdieu (1992) explains that these guidelines are developed through interactive influence and conditioning that contribute to a uniformity of thoughts and actions. With regard to education as social space, uniformity relates, for example, to always acting in the best interest of the child. The uniformity of thoughts and actions as arranged through network-related influence and conditioning represents habitus (Bourdieu 1984; Putnam 1995). In order to arrange habitus in the classroom, teachers fulfil a directional role as social agents to organise social interaction that is focused on successful learning. In this regard teachers’ performance is directed by teacher goals (Butler 2012). The combination of goal-directed teacher behaviour and the responses of pupils to this behaviour embody habitus as social interaction within the classroom as social space. This social interaction is based on social capital as the economic, cultural and symbolic qualities of teachers and pupils to which they are exposed and on which they exert influence. It inspires continued beneficial performance.
Teacher goals, which serve as motivation strategies that define and evaluate success and that organise and regulate performance, relate to a mastery goal, an ability goal, a goal of hiding inability and a goal of avoiding work (Deemer 2004). The interpersonal nature of teaching represents a fifth goal, namely a relational goal (Butler 2012). These different teaching goals transform into different approaches to teaching, resulting in different learning outcomes. A mastery goal prompts the approach of defining and evaluating competence relative to task demands, thereby motivating teachers to construe difficulty as diagnostic of further learning for improved mastery. The result is that pupils are prompted to contribute conscientiously to their own development by engaging in deep learning. An ability goal or the hiding of inability orients the teacher to define and evaluate competence relative to that of colleagues and to attribute outcomes to ability. The implication for learning is that a norm assessment approach is applied to evaluating pupil performance relative to that of the whole group with a competition element attached to outcomes. A work avoidance goal is associated with low levels of self-efficacy resulting in an approach of “I cannot, therefore I do not want to”. The influence on learning is that pupils are not exposed to challenging assignments which results in the obtaining of knowledge and skills at a superficial level. Teachers’ genuine care for pupils facilitates a relational goal which embodies socio-emotional support that involves acknowledging pupil effort and progress and viewing pupil mistakes as integral to learning. Socio-emotional support ensures pupil well-being, which interactively engenders teacher satisfaction.
Motivation influences the quality of performance and outcomes by initiating and maintaining goal-directed behaviour through the sustaining of interest in the task itself and satisfaction in the carrying out of that task. Motivated performance is then realised through the inherent pleasure of carrying out a task while being focused on meeting deadlines for task completion. This implies a concurrent functioning of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of which a balance is considered ideal for optimal performance. For this article the motivational theories of Maslow, McGregor, Herzberg, Thomas and Velthouse, and Vroom were considered. Maslow’s (1970) theory of hierarchical needs holds that individuals are motivated by the simultaneous presence of competitive salaries and comfortable physical work environments, stability and security, a sense of belonging, a sense of status, and the opportunity for self-realisation. For the teaching profession, Maslow’s theory implies that a safe teaching environment where effort is intrinsically and extrinsically acknowledged and where personal relationships contribute to a feeling of belonging, teachers are motivated to self-realisation.
As an antithesis to McGregor’s (1966) theory X about the apathetic employee, his theory Y characterises the employee as a motivated individual with the potential to develop professionally, be accountable and be willing to calibrate personal and organisational goals. Depending on teacher goals with related performance, a teacher’s identification with theory X or Y is a personal matter.
Herzberg (1974) emphasises the prominence of work satisfaction inherent to carrying out tasks and being acknowledged for effort. When work environment conditions (hygiene or health factors) are at stake, such as, for example, work security or an inadequate physical work environment, these hygiene factors inhibit optimal performance.
Thomas and Velthouse (1990) explain motivation as relating to individuals’ assessment of their own performance with regard to impact, competence, meaningfulness and choice. Accordingly, teachers are motivated knowing that their self-efficacious inputs as directed by their own choice for excellence and creativity result in successful learning and the improved well-being of their pupils.
Vroom (1964) understands motivation as consisting of the components of valence, expectancy and force. Where valence relates to the affective orientations towards specific outcomes, expectancy represents the belief that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome. The combination of valence and expectancy determines the force with which a task is executed. Vroom’s theory implies that teacher performance is motivated by teachers’ inherent orientation to guide pupils qualitatively to responsible adulthood, expecting that empathetically dedicated teaching will facilitate such outcomes.
By considering the reviewed literature and the factors teacher participants identified as underlying their motivated performance, teacher motivation manifested as an intertwinement of social capital, teacher goals and applicable motivational theories. Acting as social agents within the classroom as social space, teachers are intrinsically motivated to self-realisation through creative work performance as inspired by a relational and mastery goal to arrange for habitus as collective benefit. The six factors that participants expressed as relating to motivation were: (i) being a teacher to the core, (ii) assessing financial compensation as a relative matter, (iii) task performance based on intrinsically motivated inputs and outputs, (iv) the physical classroom environment as a subtle space for success, (v) work security interpreted as consistent actions, and (vi) constructive work relationships with stakeholders as indicative of general well-being.
Teachers’ vocational calling realises an intertwinement of the relational goal of caring for pupils and the need to share social capital relating to what is right, good and beautiful. Teachers want to share this social capital that they were exposed to as pupils with their own pupils for the sake of collective benefit. Financial compensation as a basic need is realised relative to the need for self-realisation as experienced when engaged with pupils. Self-realisation then neutralises the negative influence of unequal salaries as a hygiene/health factor. Task performance is inspired concurrently by mastery and relational goals and the need to consult with experts in order to improve habitus as a collective benefit. Consulting experts is also intrinsically motivational to facilitate subject content creatively for improved learning. Excessive administration is identified as a pertinent handicap to facilitating curriculum content effectively, serving thus as a pertinent demotivating factor for teachers.
The lack of sufficient financial resources resulting in deficiencies in the physical classroom environment forces teachers who are directed by mastery and relational goals to take the initiative for fixing infrastructure and purchasing didactic materials. This initiative is also motivated by the desire to make subject content interesting and creative to ensure successful learning. Work security is interpreted as arrangements that are consistent and that relate to the demand for decision-making to be prolonged. The influence of continuous change to the curriculum affects uniformity of actions to such an extent that teachers are not able to master curriculum implementation successfully. Positive relationships with stakeholders symbolises the interweaving of a relational goal with the need to belong in order to enjoy social capital as a shared commodity. Habitus as group-related cooperation for the sake of group-related benefit manifests in constructive work relationships with colleagues, pupils, parents and the school principal that contribute to collective prosperity and general well-being. Salient components of general well-being that underlie teacher motivation include respect for each other and for time, understanding of each other’s position within a complex social system, support to pupils who struggle to progress, and constant encouragement from the school principal.
The empirical investigation was focused on participants who are motivated to teach with dedication. I suggest that the research be extended to include a cross-section of teachers for a holistic understanding of teacher motivation as an intertwinement of the different nuances of social capital, teacher goals and applicable motivational theories.
Keywords: ability-affirming goal, calling, collective benefit, habitus, mastery goal, motivational theories, relational goal, social capital, teacher goals, teacher motivation
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