Abstract
Most relative constructions in the Greek New Testament consist of an overt nominal antecedent and a postnominal relative clause. Syntactically, relative constructions of this type are determiner-phrases, with the antecedent consisting typically of a head-noun, together with a combination of other elements, for example, articles, quantifiers, adjectives and prepositional phrases. The antecedent is followed directly by a restrictive or appositive relative clause which is embedded in the determiner-phrase.
Within such nominal relative constructions, there appears to be a relationship between the head nominal of the antecedent and the type of relative clause (restrictive or appositive) that typically groups together with it. There are possibly also examples of a related phenomenon in nominal relative constructions where more than one relative clause group together (technically, stack) after the same antecedent.
A scrutiny of the literature on the Greek New Testament indicated that there existed no in-depth discussion of these phenomena, except for some remarks in Du Toit (1984:188–99; 2014:23–5) and occasional references in New Testament grammars to passages where a high percentage of relative clauses occur, for example, 1 Cor. 15:1–2 and Rom. 9:4ff. (Robertson 1919:954).
However, research indicated that Lehmann (1984), which is still the standard publication on relative constructions in a variety of languages and widely quoted in recent publications, contains a number of important insights that could shed light on the above phenomena. In addition, some publications on modern languages offer useful information in this respect.
The objective of the research that underlay this paper was to apply these insights and information systematically to nominal relative constructions in the Greek New Testament and ascertain their usefulness in understanding and describing the above phenomena. The research focused only on nominal relative constructions with overt antecedents. Nominal relative constructions without antecedents (often referred to as free relatives) did not form part of the research.
The following are the main points made by Lehmann (1984:259–67) with regard to groupings in nominal relative constructions:
1. The grouping of the head nominals of antecedents together with restrictive or appositive relative clauses has to do with the type of determination of the head nominal of the antecedent.
2. Three fundamental types of determination by means of the presence (or absence) of the article can be distinguished, namely definite, specific and generic determination. Quantifiers and demonstratives are more concrete types of determiners. The three fundamental types are defined as follows:
- Definite determination indicates that a certain group of referents which fall under the determined concept exists in the speech situation (in Lehmann’s terminology, Redeuniversum) and that they are all involved.
- Specific determination builds a real subgroup of the group referred to by the initial concept (in Lehmann’s terminology, Ausgangsbegriff) without fixing its extension. It indicates also that a complementary group of elements which are referred to by the same concept has to be accounted for, but is not referred to.
- Generic determination indicates the opposite of specific determination, namely that no subgroup is delimited and, therefore, no elements are excluded. Generic determination assists in referring to a group denoted by a concept with exclusion of the present speech situation.
3. If the head nominal of an antecedent is definite or generic, it groups together with an appositive relative clause. If it is not definite or generic, but optionally specific, it groups together with a restrictive relative clause.
4. The scope of determiners differs between relative constructions with restrictive and appositive relative clauses. In the former case, the scope of the determiner includes the head nominal and the relative clause. In the latter case, it includes the head nominal, but not the relative clause as well.
5. Quantifiers usually occur together with articles and also have an influence on the type of relative clause which groups together with the head nominal. For example, head nominals with universal quantifiers group almost exclusively with restrictive relative clauses, whereas head nominals with some other quantifiers group together with restrictive or appositive relative clauses.
6. Proper nouns and personal pronouns, which are inherently definite, group almost exclusively with appositive relative clauses.
7. Both restrictive and appositive relative clauses can stack. When a restrictive and an appositive relative clause group together, they can also stack, but only in that order.
The application of Lehmann’s views to groupings in nominal relative constructions in the Greek New Testament indicated that they were applicable and valuable for an understanding of these phenomena. It also showed that New Testament Greek corresponded to a large extent with a number of modern (and other ancient) languages in this regard.
The following are some of the specific findings of the research:
1. Groupings involving restrictive relative clauses
Restrictive relative clauses in the New Testament group together with head nominals which are not definite or generic, but could be specific. In this case the scope of the article (or its absence) includes the head nominal and the restrictive relative clause, for example in Matt. 8:4c and John 1:30a. The same principle applies in relative constructions with adjoined relative clauses, for example in John 9:24a.
In cases where a universal quantifier such as πᾶς (every, each, all, whole [in the latter meaning with the article], any), οὐδείς (no, none) and ἕκαστος (each) precedes the head nominal, the relative clause is almost always restrictive – cf. Jude 15b (πᾶσαν), John 16:15a (πάντα) and Mark 9:39b (οὐδείς). In a few instances, however, an appositive relative clause occurs after a head nominal with a universal quantifier, for example in Rom. 1:5b–6a (πᾶσιν) and 2 Tim. 1:15b (πάντες).
Quantifiers like πολλοί (many), τινές (some), ὀλίγοι (a few), ἱκανοί (many, quite a few) occur freely with restrictive, as well as with appositive relative clauses – cf. τινές (some) in John 6:64a (followed by a restrictive relative clause) and Acts 24:19 (followed by an appositive relative clause).
A possible example of stacked restrictive relative clauses occurs in Luke 18:29b–30. In this case an asyndetic relative clause in verse 30 follows directly on a relative clause in verse 29b, after the same head nominal οὐδείς (nobody).
2. Groupings involving appositive relative clauses
Appositive relative clauses group together with head nominals that are definite or generic. In these cases the scope of the determiner, which could be an article (or its absence) or a quantifier, includes the head nominal, but not the relative clause as well, for example in 1 Tim. 1:4. In some instances the relative clause could be interpreted as appositive or restrictive, for example in Matt. 7:15.
Proper names which function as head nouns group almost exclusively with appositive relative clauses, for example, in 3 John 1 (Γαΐῳ,to Gaius) and Acts 21:29 (Τρόφιμον,Trophimus). In a few cases a proper noun groups together with a restrictive relative clause, for example Ἰησοῦν (Jesus) in Acts 19:13b and 1 Cor. 11:4a.
Only a few examples occur in the New Testament where a personal pronoun functions as head nominal of a relative construction. In Acts 10:40b–41c the relative clause after ἡμῖν (to us) is probably restrictive, and is also interpreted as such by all the Bible translations consulted. In some instances both an appositive and a restrictive interpretation is possible, for example in 1 Cor. 10:11b after ἡμῶν (to us).
It seems as if appositive relative clauses can also stack, for example in Rom. 16:3–5a, where an asyndetic relative clause follows directly on another relative clause in verse 4, with the same coordinate head nouns (Πρίσκαν, Priscilla, and Ἀκύλαν,Aquila).
A possible example of stacking of a restrictive relative clause and an asyndetic appositive relative clause which follows directly on it occurs in Luke 18:29b–30, although both relative clauses could also be interpreted as restrictive in the context. An example of stacking of a participial restrictive relative clause and an appositive one (with a finite verb), in that order, occurs in Matt. 27:55–6. No examples were found where an appositive relative clause stacks with an asyndetic restrictive relative clause following it.
Keywords: Greek, grouping, New Testament, relative construction, relative clause, stacking
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