Abstract
The Eiger is a famous peak near the town of Grindelwald in the Berner Alps (the central Swiss Alps) rising 3 970 m above sea level. The difference in altitude between the valley and the peak summit is 1 800 m (Geldard 2011). The Eiger is one of a formidable trio of mountains, the other two being the Jungfrau and the Mönch (see photo 2). Initially, the north face of the Eiger posed immense challenges for young and inspired rock climbers who put their technical and psychological skills to the utmost test.
For what reasons would young rock climbers, in contempt of death, climb a mountain peak that in times gone by have gained the reputation of being unconquerable? Was it because of a need for prestige, or simply a consequence of ill-considered leadership? Was the climbers' knowledge of the specialised techniques that are required for extreme rock climbing sufficient, and did they have the necessary skills?
The aim of this analysis of the literature is, firstly, to identify a so-called Eiger north face stereotype; secondly, to assess the accuracy of the stereotype by making a literature analysis of the personality characteristics of rock climbers as reported in scientific journal publications, as well as an analysis of anecdotal information available about the underlying nature of the motivation of rock climbers. The relative accuracy/inaccuracy of the stereotype is assessed by identifying discrepancies and similarities between the social perceptions and available psychometric data.
To analyse the literature about the personality characteristics associated with rock climbers (see table 1), several scientific journal articles that met the following criteria were studied: (a) It had to be available in full text online, exposed to peer evaluation, and available in standard electronic databases. (b) The research designs had to include psychometric measuring instruments in the methodology. (c) Furthermore the psychometric results had to be compared to those of control groups or norm group data. (d) Studies in which correlative studies with the data of one or more groups of rock climbers had been undertaken were included. (e) Only studies in which statistical analyses of the data had been undertaken were taken into consideration. (f) If structured interviews with rock climbers had been conducted it also met the criteria for inclusion. Studies that included rock climbers as subjects in composite samples consisting of participants from different extreme sport activities were excluded from this study.
Based on logical grounds (i.e. on real events or facts) alone, a rationale for the negative stereotyping of rock climbers by the Swiss media is partially explicable. There were eight deaths within a short period (August 1935 until July 1938), and any death always educes strong emotions. By means of telescopes, guests of the Grindelwald and Kleine Scheidegg guesthouses and tourists could follow every movement of the climbers from the valley below, which was, of course, extremely dramatic, and in some cases when the sleet clouds cleared away, the corpses of climbers frozen against the vertical front were visible – a phenomenon that created incredible and horrifying emotions. The Eiger was like a majestic and sensational theatre, and with its big-screen attraction it made a definite contribution to the unbelievable scenes of the climbs (Stölzl 2012). The implications for dangerous rescue operations were self-evident, and because of the deaths, disagreement, discord and double-bind situations arose within the ranks of the Alpine Guide Association (Stölzl 2012).
Anecdotal points of view are divergent and complex and bring a unique personality profile of the passionate, experienced rock climber to the fore. The pursuit of fame at all costs is indeed a motivating factor for some rock climbers. There are also indications of the existence of a particular disposition associated with climbing success. Such a disposition includes facets like a pursuit of personal freedom, self-knowledge, an internal locus of control, and self-control.
Seventeen full-text articles that met the criteria for inclusion were identified and are indicated in table 1. The information covers a period of 48 years, and during this period, surprisingly few controlled studies about the characteristics of rock climbers were published in recognised journals. Research about the physiological factors related to rock climbing, like the climbing technique, style and injuries, appears to have been more popular than studies about the implications of psychological factors in this sport.
The sample sizes varied between 19 and 762, and independent control groups were included in the research designs of only five studies. Dependent (or paired) control groups were not used in any study, which could possibly be regarded as a shortcoming of the research. From an ethical perspective, however, criticism of the results of a study only in terms of sample size is insufficient, and statistical and practical significance should be considered (Harriss and Atkinson 2015). With regard to the correlative studies in table 1, the majority of the studies did not test the practical significance of the results (for example by the coefficient of determination). With regard to these aspects, the quality of future research could be improved.
In five studies the results of the psychometric instruments were compared with the norm data of the samples obtained during the standardisation process of the psychometric instruments. Only in one study were standardised measuring instruments with available reliability and validity coefficients not used, which is a positive finding. In this study, the researchers constructed an own measuring instrument, and in one study, structured interviewing was used as a measuring technique.
The psychometric instrument that was used most in the research designs was Zuckerman/Arnett's Need for Sensation Scale, which is quoted six times in the 16 studies (38%), followed by Cattel's Sixteen-factor Personality Questionnaire, which was used in two studies.
Need for sensation is confirmed by five studies (article numbers 7, 8, 10, 13, and 14) and can be accepted with certainty as a distinguishing personality trait of experienced and skilful rock climbers. Together with this, there is also the tendency continually to set new and difficult challenges as objectives (2, 6, 8, and 11) and take related risks (6, 9, 10, and 11). However, “tendency (to) take risks” should be qualified because a particular risk is taken when it falls within the ability of the climber to take that risk (study 6). Two studies (5 and 12) reported high levels of anxiety in climbers, and three investigations (4, 10, and 11) indicated low anxiety as a peculiar characteristic of rock climbers. Research findings on anxiety as a variable in the personality dynamics of rock climbers reflect a different image as obtained from the studies on need for sensation (where consensus has been reached), and therefore seem to be of a contradictory nature.
Nine studies (1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16 in table 1) investigated specific emotional patterns among rock climbers. The results of four of these studies (10, 11, 14, and 16) indicate the presence of high levels of emotional stability in rock climbers, while the rest indicate that personality traits like poor ability to express emotion, inhibition of worries, insufficient regulation of emotion, general emotional maladjustment, and avoidance of interpersonal interaction are characteristic of rock climbers. Thus, these research results are contradictory in nature, and no consensus exists that a characteristic affective pattern is associated with the skills and experience levels in rock climbing.
For the sake of convenience, the evaluation of the relative accuracy/inaccuracy of a stereotype can be compared to target-shooting at a target of concentric circles with an absolute central point. A bull's-eye does not necessarily mean that the absolute, precise central point of the target has been hit. The spot on the target can even consist of smaller concentric circles, which means that a bull's-eye is any hit as long as the spot-area is hit. To use the metaphor of the bull's-eye, the series of real deaths on the Eiger and their consequences have created the basis for the origin of the negative stereotyping. Although the tone of reporting by the media sometimes had a tinge of prejudice, it was relatively accurate in the particular context of the happenings and the former political climate in Central Europe.
The anecdotal information referred to in this article is diverse in nature and from a theoretical perspective provides a comprehensive model for the personality structure of rock climbers. These viewpoints have a greater focus on theory-building, and the hypotheses ensuing from them should first be investigated thoroughly scientifically and experimentally before final conclusions about the applicability of the opinions can be drawn. The anecdotal perspectives about the dynamics of rock climbing indeed support the accuracy of the stereotyping of rock climbers, but the reliability and validity of the viewpoints are questionable at this stage.
The published studies in recognised scientific journals indicate that limited research about the personality dynamics of rock climbers has been undertaken since the 1960s. The results of these studies tend to be contradictory in nature. Consensus (based on findings confirmed by various studies) indeed exists that experienced and technically skilful rock climbers show a strong pursuance of sensation and are prepared to take risks, but only if the risks fall within their ability to undertake them.
Thus the real, factual, tragic events support the accuracy of the stereotype. Research that is better structured should be conducted about the anecdotal information. Scientific research results do not support the accuracy of the stereotype. The Eiger rock-climbing culture in the 1930s went hand in hand with extreme risks, but it appears that the risks were envisaged and well considered cognitively by the climbers; nonetheless, the climbs still ended traumatically. The climbers were motivated intrinsically and definitely did not carry out ill-considered daring and remarkable deeds so that their names could be engraved impromptu as heroes on the list of Eiger deaths.
It is recommended that more research about the personality dynamics of rock climbers should be conducted. The anecdotal information that exists about rock climbing can be investigated further in the form of hypotheses with logically formulated rationales. A critical analysis of the existing research findings about the personality dynamics of rock climbers should be undertaken to determine why conflicting results are found so often in this field of research.
The pioneering work of Barlow et al. (2015) can be continued by comparing the profiles of rock climbers with those of participants in other extreme sports codes with regard to specific personality traits, for example regulation of emotion. Correlational studies between the physiological and physical attributes of highly skilful and less skilful rock climbers and their personality traits, especially against the background of Fessler, Tiokhin, Holbrook, Gervais, and Snyder's (2014) crazy bastard theory, should be undertaken.
To answer the question of whether the same stereotype(s) today still apply to rock climbing, solo climbing and participation in other extreme sport codes amounts to mere speculation. The context in which rock climbing currently takes place has changed radically since the 1930s. For example, technological developments continually lead to improvement of techniques and equipment. Rescue operations are becoming easier and are performed more efficiently (for example by the availability of helicopters). Rock-climbing tourism is another factor that makes the process more complex. Nowadays, the profit motive, paying clients and marketing strategies are the order of the day. In Boukreev and DeWalt (1998:7) the media refer to these rich clients as “dollar dogs”. Perhaps the disaster on Mount Everest in 1996 (Boukreev and DeWalt 1998) could be the breeding ground for the reconfirmation of the Eiger north face stereotype (although the contexts differ entirely).
Keywords: Eiger; need for sensation; personality characteristics; risk-taking; rock climbing; stereotyping
Lees die volledige artikel in Afrikaans: Stereotipering van rotsklimmers: Ware helde of soekers na rampspoedige roem?
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