Abstract
The term Gothic does not often feature in academic discussions on Afrikaans literature; neither does its Afrikaans equivalent, Goties, appear in T.T. Cloete’s authoritative work of reference,Literêre terme en teorieë (1992). There are various reasons for this omission in Afrikaans literature. Gothic elements in Afrikaans fiction are, firstly, usually associated with popular ghost stories or youth literature and not with “high” literature. Secondly, it is generally accepted that Afrikaans Gothic literature is a mere imitation of the British Gothic tradition and not an independent literary type with its own unique characteristics. Thirdly, “pure” Gothic literature, that is “adventure-time in Gothic-architectural space” (Townshend 2014:xlii-xliii), hardly still exists within modern world literature. However, there remain certain narratives in English, German, French, Dutch and many other languages with the “Gothic effect” of ominousness, mystery and eeriness, which are therefore regarded as Gothic literature.
The same applies to some Afrikaans texts which contain unique Gothic effects such as mystery, fear and horror within a distinctive South African environment (such as deserted farmsteads, drought-ridden areas) with authentic South African characters (including farmers, Khoisan rainmakers and Boer soldiers). These aspects, in combination with the influence of indigenous occult traditions, bring about a distinctive Afrikaans Gothic literature. In other words, Afrikaans Gothic is not a mere imitation of European traditions, but has original attributes.
In this article the existence of a unique Afrikaans Gothic is considered with reference to the Faust motif in three Afrikaans narratives, namely Eugène N. Marais’s short novel Die boom in die middel van die tuin (1933), Anna M. Louw’s novel Vos (1999), and Pieter van Zyl’s short story “Versoeking” (2015).
The following questions will be addressed in this article:
- Where does Afrikaans Gothic come from and how did it develop?
- Does a distinctive Afrikaans Gothic with unique characteristics exist?
- In which way was Afrikaans literature impacted by the Faust legend and why can these texts be regarded as “Gothic”?
- What is the psychoanalytical value of Gothic narratives?
In the first place, the influences (such as indigenous occult traditions, the spiritualist movement, Southeast-Asian beliefs in sorcery) on the Afrikaans Gothic will be scrutinised. Secondly, a variety of Afrikaans texts with Gothic characteristics will be analysed. Thirdly, the Faust motif is investigated in three Afrikaans texts. In conclusion the psychoanalytical value will be discussed.
The Gothic novel has been reinvented many times to adapt to various eras and cultures (Townshend 2014:xliii). During this process of reinvention a variety of forms developed: the female Gothic, the terror Gothic, the horror Gothic, the lesbian Gothic, the German “Schauerroman”, the French “roman noir” and the Dutch “griezelroman”, to name but a few. For this reason, Gothic literature is considered a changing literary mode, rather than an unvarying genre with unchanging features. Nevertheless, the Gothic narrative is in general still viewed as a text with an ominous, haunting atmosphere, inhabited by ghosts, vampires and mysterious elements like premonitions, dreams, visions, sleepwalking and visitations (Van Gorp 1991:165; Hogle 2002:2; Abrams 2009 137–8; Lemmer 2010:185).
In the traditional Gothic novel the events usually take place during medieval times in Gothic buildings (such as castles and monasteries), hence the term Gothic. In modern versions of the Gothic novel the milieu may vary from psychiatric hospitals, orphanages, deserted parking garages and laboratories to arid landscapes and even spaceships lost in the darkness of deep space (Hogle 2002:2).
Van Gorp (1991:165) describes the action within the Gothic novel as “violent and grotesque” and because the events usually occur at night, the atmosphere is gloomy and bleak. He furthermore regards the motifs of forbidden sexual urges (incest, rape, molestation) and the excessive desire for knowledge as typical of this genre.
A substantial number of Afrikaans narratives contain the above-mentioned characteristics. Even so, the terms Gothic and neo-Gothic are not often used within academic discourse on Afrikaans literature (Aucamp 2010:1). Many Afrikaans literary experts regard terror literature as pulp fiction (“triviaalliteratuur”, Bisschoff 1992:542), and it is generally accepted that Afrikaans Gothic narratives do not significantly contribute to the literary canon (Loots 2007:9). Consequently, very little research has been done on Afrikaans Gothic literature, while extensive studies have been undertaken on English, German and French Gothic literature (Hogle 2002; Mishra 1994; Punter 2012; Sage 1990; Bomarito 2005) over the past 30 years.
Even in world literature, Gothic novels only recently started enjoying a higher status, thanks to the “crossover” tendency of postmodernism, where boundaries between “high” and “low” cultures are blurred. Another reason for the re-evaluation of Gothic novels is the psychoanalytical value of these texts, as they mirror the social evils of a certain society within a specific era.
Aucamp (2010:2) describes the academic interest in the Afrikaans Gothic as “sporadic”, and the few master’s degree dissertations on the topic (Van Graan 2008; Loots 2007; Buys 2002) are indicative of this lack of interest. By exploring the impact of the Gothic on Afrikaans literature, this article will attempt to overcome this disparity.
The existence of the Afrikaans Gothic as an independent form of fiction is often questioned (Loock 1994:106; Loots 2007:8); for this reason, this article will investigate whether a distinctive Afrikaans Gothic with original characteristics does exist. This will be accomplished by exploring the various influences on Afrikaans Gothic texts, namely the influence of indigenous occult traditions, Southeast-Asian beliefs in conjuring and the British spiritualist movement.
According to Brink (1997:118; 1998:26) a unique brand of magical realism exists in Afrikaans that is different from Latin-American and European varieties, which is attributed to the influence of African orature. For this very reason it can be argued that a distinctive Afrikaans Gothic also exists, not only because of indigenous oral traditions, but also because of the influence of foreign occult beliefs. Moreover, the unique characters (witch-doctors, river spirits and Malay sorcerers) and environments (remote farms, drought-stricken areas) also contribute to this distinctiveness.
In other words, Afrikaans Gothic texts developed by means of cross-cultural transfer. It is a blend of various indigenous occult beliefs as well as outlandish occult traditions. The grotesque events furthermore take place within a typical South African environment and often against the backdrop of socio-political conflict which creates an ominous atmosphere of uncertainty, fear and despair. A detailed description of the barren, remote environment contributes to the menacing ambience and the milieu itself becomes an antagonist leading to the main character’s downfall.
The personas are authentic South African characters, for instance farmers, Afrikaner pastors, missionaries and Khoisan sorcerers who are often intentionally portrayed in a stereotypical way in order to be identifiable. In this way, important social commentary about relevant issues can be delivered.
Goethe’s Faust (1808) is viewed as a Gothic drama and various Afrikaans texts have been influenced by it through the decades. Eugène Marais’s “Die boom in die middel van die tuin” (1933), Anna M. Louw’s Vos (1999) and Pieter van Zyl’s short story “Versoeking” (2015) incorporate the Faust motif from Goethe’s text to comment on social evils within a specific era. Marais exposes the evils of poverty during the Great Depression, Louw criticises the Afrikaner’s methods to accomplish economic and political success during apartheid and Van Zyl comments on an intolerant and xenophobic South African society.
The above-mentioned narratives combine indigenous orature and occult traditions with the European Faust legend, thereby resulting in a unique Afrikaans Gothic.
The following similarities were found between these three texts and Goethe’s Faust. The main character:
- is dissatisfied with his present circumstances and desires something better
- is involved in the church – Faust is a scholar in theology, Scalinger is a missionary, Vos a church deacon and Wynie van Breda a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church
- is overwhelmed by a feeling of pessimism
- has an obsession with knowledge, status and success and is willing to do anything to gain this
- has direct contact with the devil, which manifests in a civilised, sophisticated human form
- makes a pact with the devil
- falls from grace
- is saved by (the mercy of) God or his own insight.
Gothic narratives possess psychoanalytical significance because they reflect the trauma experienced by a certain society within a transitional period. It is not surprising, then, that most Afrikaans ghost stories originated during and after the South African War. Over the past decade the Afrikaner has once again found himself in a phase of liminality and change which is accompanied by feelings of loss, anxiety and uncertainty. When one reads recent Afrikaans ghost stories, it becomes evident that there are a lot of realistic fears disguised as supernatural horrors, namely the fear of farm murders, racism and an incompetent police force. In this way the fear created by the realities of South African life is transferred to the paranormal, a more digestible, “safer” medium through which social evils can be processed.
It is thus evident that a unique Afrikaans Gothic does exists, a distinct brand of Gothic that does not merely duplicate or imitate the European tradition, but is an original genre with its very own characteristics.
Keywords: Afrikaans Gothic literature; Faust motif; ghost stories; horror literature; neo-Gothic; occult traditions; paranormal phenomena; social evils; spiritualist movement; terror literature; psychoanalytic value of Gothic narratives; Gothic novel; traditional Gothic
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